About hormones and neurotransmittors

Hormones are signal substances produced at one place in the body to regulate the function of organs or cells at another place. Hormons for long distance regulation is produced in specific glands. Hormones that regulate cells at a shorter distance are produced in other cells of the same organ or tissue, so-called tissue hormons.

The pituitary gland is the superior hormone producer of the body. It produces hormons that regulate the whole body, like growth hormone. It also produces hormones that regulate the function of other hormon producing glands, for example thyreotropine that stimulates the function of the thyroid gland. Other examples are follicle stimulating hormons and luteinizing hormones that regulates the sexual maturing of both sexes, the function of the sexual organs and the menstrual cycle.

The thyroid gland produces hormons that stimulate metabolism and thereby stimulates the rate of the daily function of most bodily organs.

The testicles and ovaries produce the hormones testosterone, estradiol and progesterone that also regulate aspects of sexual maturing and the daily sexual function.

The adrenal glands produce epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine that stimulate the heart action, regulates blood vessel dynamics, increase blood glucose lvels, decrease the function of the intestines. Generally these hormones set the body in a state that is suited for external action, like fight and flight. The adrenal galnds also produces cortisol that increases blood pressure and blood glucose levels and reduces immune responce. Also this hormone sets the body in a state suited for external responce.

The pancreas produce insuline that stimulate the body tissues to take up glucose from the blood, convert it to fat aqnd store it.

The kidneys produce erythropoietine that stimulates the production of red blood bodies or erythrocytes.

In all tissues cells make short distance hormones that regulate the function of nerby cells and structures. An example is the substance histamine that make blood vessels dilate. Histamine is important for the defence against harmful elements and the repair of damage. Other examples are prostaglandines and leucotriens that regulate immune functions.

The signals transmitted by the nervous system must be carried from the end of one nerve cell over to the next. This is done by signal substances called neurotransmittors.

Chemically hormones and neurotransmittors resamble each other, and some substances work both as hormones and neurotransmittors, for example adrenaline that is both a hormone produced by the adrenal gland and a neurotransmittor.

The molecules of most hormones and neurotransmittors have a group reacting as a base and containing nitogen. They are useually modified amino acids or made from amino acids. Amino acids contain such an atomic group, the amino group.

Hormonal diseases imply too high or too low production of a hormone. Psychological diseases usually imply a too high or a too low production of neurotransmittors in parts of the brain.

An optimal production of hormones and neurotransmittors is dependent of a good nutritional status, so that the body gets all the building blocks it needs for the production.



About the neurotransmitter GABA - gamma aminobutyric acid

GABA means the same as gama-amino-butyric acid. It is a simple amino acid with the amono group and the craboxylic group at each end of a chain of three carbon atoms between. GABA is a transmittor substance in the central nervous system in mammals.

Mostly it is used as an inhibitory nevrotransmittor. When a nerve signal reaches the end of a nerve thread (axon) where it is joined to other nerve cells, and an inhibitory nervotransmitter is released, that nevrotransmitter hinders or decreases nerve signals from originating in the next nerve cell and hinders that cell to transmit nerve signals along.

This will further modulate emotions, cognitive processes or physiological reactions stimulated by the nerve signal or play a role in the logical processes in the brain. Usually the ultimate physiological or mental reactions will decrease, but sometimes inhibitory signals and nerotransmittors will strengthen reactions because inhibitory nerve signals can inhibit other inhibitory nerve signals in a complex logical network in the brain.

GABA works by binding to resceptors in the nerve cells that after binding will open ion channels so that cloride ions stream out of the cell and potassium ion stream into the cell. This will destroy the potensial across the cell membrane and deactivate the ability of the cell to lead nerve impulses.

Early in the development of the brain, GABA is a stimulating nerve substance. In that face of development, GABA stimulates the proliferation of nerve cells. It also stimulates the growth and development of nerve threads (axons and dendrites) and nerve cell junctions (synapses), especially in the hippocampus and neocortex.

The nerve system, and especially the brain, syntetisizes GABA from glutamate with the enzyme L-glutamate dehydrogenase.

Gaba is also used as a nevrotransmitter or tissue hormone in specific organs outside the brain, both as an inhibitant and as a stimulator, for example in fallopian tubes, uterus, ovary, testis, kidney, urinary bladder, lung, airway epitelium and liver.

Physiological roles of GABA

GABA plays a role in regulating sleep, mainly it promotes sleep. It also promotes general relaxation, hinders anxiety and hinders cramps. In great doses it can hinder short time and long time memory to form.

GABA seems to increase production of growth hormone in many individuels, but in others it seems to decrease it.

Drugs that increase the production of GABA or increase the responsiveness of the GABA resceptors have the same effects. Many common relaxing and anesthetic drugs and many common relaxing natural medicines partly work by increasing the production of GABA, by effectivizing GABA resceptors or by hindering reuptake of GABA.

GABA admistered outside the brain itself does not penetrate into most parts of the brain, but still it penetrates into some of the brain and thus makes an effect there, for example the periventricular nucleus, a part of the hypothalamus.

In the mucos membranes of the airways GABA seems to cause cramps and may be a mediator in Asthmatic processes.



About the hormone serotonine

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. In the digestive tract it is used as a local hormone and is there made by the celles called enterochromaffin cells. Also many mushrooms and plants make serotonine, and it is found in fruits and vegetables.

The body makes serotonin from the amino acid tryptophan by using two enzymes – tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) and amino acid decarboxylase (DDC). The TPH mediated reaction is the rate limiting step in the pathway.

The human gastrointestinal tract produces about 90% of the serotonine in the body and much of it is stored in the blood platelets.

TPH is found in two main forms, TPH1 found in several tissues, and TPH2 which is specifically made in the brain. Both these main forms of the substance can exist in sveral sub-variants, a fenomenon called polymorphism.


The roles of serotonine

Serotonine moderates anger and agressive behaviour.

A high enough level of serotonine helps to keep a person in good mood.

Serotonine is also used as a transmitter substance in the regulation of body temperature, sleep, vomiting, sexuality, and appetite.

Serotonine circulating in the blood causes blood vessels to constrict, and it therefore plays a role in the regualtion of blood circulation in the tissues.

Serotonine acts in the normal coagualtion process of blood and the stopping of bleedings. Mostly it stimulates coagulation, but in certain instances it decrease the coagulation rate, and the exact effect depends upon other factors present.


Consequences of disturbances in serotonine levels

A low level of serotonine can contribute to an increase in agressiveness.

A low level of serotonine will contribute to depression or bipolar disorder. A low serotonne level will also be causal for anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD).

There is evidence that genetic polymorphisms in the serotonine molecules influence susceptibility to anxiety and depression.

A low level of serotonine is a part of the mechanism of post-parum depression, and that the level of serotonine in these cases is connected to the level of ovarian hormones.

The level of serotonine is a part of the mechanism of pre-menstrual stress syndrome, and the level of serotonine in these cases is also connected to the level of ovarian hormones.

Low levels of serotonin may be also be a causal factor in migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, tinnitus, fibromyalgia.

If neurons of the brainstem that make serotonin— serotonergic neurons — are abnormal, there is a risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

People having low serotonine levels seem to be more likely to have intense religiou experiences.




About growth hormone or somatotropin

Somatotropin is a protein consisteing of one folded chain of 191 amino acid units. The anterior pituitary secrets this hormone that is distributed to thw whole body.

The main function of the hormone is to stimulate sytesis of proteins, to stimulate growth and also stimulate healing and regeneration from wearing and damages of tissues at all ages.

Since growth and regeneration are complex processes, the hormone must play a regulatory role at many places and lecvels in the human and animal phyiology.

Growth imply these processes that somatotropin must stimulate and influence in some way:

- Production of protein.
- Production of other structural substanses.
- Composing of cellular structures from all structural substances
- Divisjon of cells to increase the number of cells
- Burning of fat to get energy for growth

The secretion of growth hormones and thereby also the growth processes is ballanced by many factors that stimulate or inhibit the production of the hormone.

These factors stimulate the somatotropin secretion:

- growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) from the arcuate nucleus
- ghrelin
- sleep
- exercise (in particular resistance training)
- low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia)
- Short-term fasting
- dietary protein
- increased androgen secretion during puberty (in males from testis and in females from adrenal cortex)
- estradiol or any estrogen
- arginine


These factors inhibit the secretion of somatotropine

- somatostatin from the periventricular nucleus
- circulating concentrations of GH and IGF-1 (negative feedback on the pituitary and hypothalamus)
- hyperglycemia
- glucocorticoids


These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This information is nutritional in nature and should not be construed as medical advice. This notice is required by the Federal Food, Drug and cosmetic act.